Section C Directions: In this section, you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it. Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once. Each paragraph is marked with a letter. Answer the questions by matching the corresponding letter with each statement. A)In 1854, George Boole published An Investigation of the laws of Thought — an influential book whose topic was not psychology, as one might expect, but logic. In Boole's day, the processes existing beneath human thinking were assumed to belong to the area of logic, because everyone knew that what distinguished humans from animals is that we reason while animals do not. This was seen as the typical feature of the human mind. In the 20th century, psychologists studied children's thinking but paid little attention to adult thinking, since logic was clearly its key. Around 1960, however, British psychologist Peter Wason found many situations in which adult thinking was anything but logical. This led to much research that explored approaches other than logic. B)Among the new avenues explored by psychologists was analogy ( 类比 ). It was Aristotle who first discussed analogies, focusing on cases of the form “ A is to B as C is to D ” . Psychologist explored its role in problem solving and everyday reasoning. This was certainly a marked advance, but even so, in psychology conferences today, the topic of analogy is generally covered only in sessions that deal with reasoning processes; it tends not to be seen as playing a central role in cognition ( 认知 ) but as a sophisticated reasoning tool used only under special circumstances. C)Analogical thought involves the recognition of important but often hidden similarities between two mental structures, one already existing in our brain, representing some aspect of our knowledge stored in an organized fashion, and the other one freshly constructed, representing a new circumstance in our lives. In essence, a proper analogy allows a person to treat something new as if it were familiar. D)If we had to deal with the world without depending on our past experience, we would be like newborns for whom each perception of outside world is absolutely novel. Luckily, however, although we are forever facing new situations, they are not brand new situations. Think of an elevator in an unfamiliar hotel. To use it, you unconsciously depend on prior experiences in many other places. You have a non verbal feeling for how to recognize the slightly recessed ( 嵌入的 ) area in a corridor where an elevator will most likely be found, and for where one or more “ call buttons ” will be found on the wall. You expect a “ding” when an elevator car arrives and on an inner wall by the door you expect to find a panel of buttons; moreover, you know how to use buttons thanks to experience not just with elevators, but with computer keyboards and TV remotes. E)All these analogies at many scales spring unexpected to your mind. Some involve unimportant things while others have serious consequences. Indeed, were you suddenly deprived of your ability to make analogies, your life would become confusing. F)If one looks out for them, analogies appear everywhere. This holds especially for the use of words to label new situations, since labeling anything involves ignoring its details and replacing it by an abstract correspondent. So, for instance, the unfamiliar creature you see in front of you is not understood by taking into account each and every one of its countless unique features; it becomes simply a dog, or perhaps a poodle ( 鬈毛狗 ). This unique structure, carefully designed by an architect and built by a crew with very hard work, is simply a bridge. And on it goes. Consider the sentence “I see the light at the end of the tunnel”, “I hear she's back!”, “I smell a rat in their offer”, “I was touched by your gesture”, “I can taste victory!” Seeming to invoke our five senses, they are actually abstract analogies, involving anticipation, discovery, guessing, emotion and enjoyment. G)Every conversation is filled with analogies, but that does not mean analogies are mostly verbal phenomena. Language may convey analogies that are not rooted in language. For example, when a bank was failing and stockholders were demanding for its president to resign, someone said, “When a ship's sinking, you don't throw the captain overboard.” This was much easier to understand than an elaborate argument would have been, yet it involves numerous abstract mappings: bank as ship, financial crisis as sinking in the ocean, president as captain, and a call for resignation as throwing someone overboard. Though expressed in words, those mappings did not originate in language. H)Analogy is the motor driving the building up of concepts throughout our lives. For example, 1-year-old Timmy's first word is “ mommy ” , and he uses it to mean his own mother. However, his mother is not a static thing, but a constantly varying pattern of things, at whose core Timmy has identified something stable and invariant. Already we are dealing with abstraction and analogy making, but Timmy's initial concept “mommy” is merely the foundation of a future skyscraper. I)Soon he will realize that other children, too, have mommies. Then he will enrich his category “mommy” by adding the mothers of cats and monkey. However, he has not yet realized that his own parents also have mommies. A year later, he will laugh when told he once resisted this idea. At this point, “mommy” has given birth to the more abstract category “mother”, which later leads him to embrace motherlands, motherboards and even the sentence “Idleness is the mother of philosophy”. J)Analogy is the machinery that allows us to use our past to orient ourselves in the present. Through millions of analogies over our lives, we build vast numbers of very big, flexible categories; through analogies we get back appropriate categories based on subtle cues that reveal what counts in a situation and what doesn't. In this way we survive in the world, understand the world and enjoy the world. It is now psychology's turn to use analogy profoundly in order to better understand the human mind. Statements: 1. The study of analogy, a new avenue to the study of the human mind is still lack of attention and exploration. 2. Psychologists tried to use different ways to study adult thinking. 3. In little Timmy's mind, mommy is a word which represents his mother only. 4. Analogy may include a vivid and interesting comparison of one thing to another thing. 5. Timmy realized gradually that the word “mother” has concrete as well as abstract meanings. 6. Analogy is very common in our daily life from naming a certain object to expressing certain feelings. 7. Prior experiences are very helpful in dealing with new situations. 8. Analogy involves discovering of common qualities between new and familiar things. 9. People should apply analogy in psychology to studying human mind. 10. People's life would be in a mess without the competence of making analogy.
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