Directions: finish reading the following passage and answer the two questions at the end of the passage. Logic and fallacy Before reading Text A, you may need to know the following things to help you with a better understanding. Logic Logic refers to both the study of the modes of reasoning ( 推理,推论 ) and the use of valid reasoning. It says which forms of inference ( 推理,推论 ) are valid and which forms are not. Traditionally, logic is studied as a branch of philosophy, but it can also be considered a branch of mathematics. How people actually reason is usually studied under other headings, including cognitive psychology ( 认知心理学 ) . Logic is traditionally divided into deductive reasoning ( 演绎推理 ), which is concerned with what follows logically from given premises ( 前提 ) , and inductive reasoning ( 归纳推理 ), which is concerned with how we can go from a number of observed events to a reliable generalization ( 概括 ) . Here is a famous example of deductive reasoning: Major premise ( (三段论法的)大前提 ) : All men are mortal ( 终有一死的 ) . Minor premise ( (三段论法的)小 前提 ) : Socrates ( 苏格拉底 ) is a man. Specific conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. The following is an example of inductive reasoning: Fact 1: Heating is becoming more expensive. Fact 2: Lighting is becoming more expensive. Fact 3: Food prices are rising. Fact 4: Our salaries remain unchanged. Conclusion: We must cut expenditure, as our daily costs are getting greater. Logic was studied in several ancient civilizations, including India, China, and Greece. In the West, logic was established as a formal discipline ( 学科 ) by Aristotle, who gave it a fundamental place in philosophy. His conception of syllogistic ( 三段论式的 ) logic remains a cornerstone of the study of logic even today. The study of logic was part of the classical trivium ( 三学科 : 文法,逻辑和修辞 ), which also included grammar and rhetoric ( 修辞 ) . Though logic sounds like an esoteric ( 深奥难懂 的 ) subject for academic ( 学术的 ) philosophers, the truth of the matter is that logic is applicable anywhere that reasoning and arguments are being used. Whether the actual subject matter is politics, ethics ( 伦理学 ) , social policies, raising children, or organizing a book collection, we use reasoning and arguments to arrive at specific conclusions. Fallacy A fallacy is an error in reasoning that renders ( 致使 ) an argument logically invalid ( 无效的 ) . By accident or design, logical fallacies are often used in debate or propaganda ( (常含贬义)宣传 ) to mislead people or to distract them from the real issue for the purpose of winning an argument. Some common types of logical fallacies include: Red Herring ( 转移话题 ): a fallacy in which an irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue. For example: Why should we worry about the amount of violence on television when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year? Begging the Question ( 循环论证 ): a fallacy that occurs when an argument takes its proof from a factor within the argument itself, rather than from an external one. For example: I believe that the coffee Nescafe Original is great because it says so on the Nestle packaging. Slippery Slope ( 滑坡谬误 ): a fallacy based on an argument that assumes that a very small action will inevitably lead to extreme and often ludicrous ( 荒唐的 ) outcomes. For example: We can't allow people to bring beverages ( 饮料 ) into the conference room. If we do, soon they'll be bringing in snacks and then meals. Pretty soon we'll have a full-blown restaurant in here! I'd have to hire wait staff and a chef! We could get shut down for a health code ( 规则 ) violation! Bandwagon ( 从众谬误 ): a fallacy that is based on an appeal to popular belief and behavior, not on valid and logical points. For example: Lots of people bought this album, so it must be good. False Dilemma ( 伪两难谬误 ): a fallacy of oversimplification that offers a limited number of options (usually two) when in reality more options are available. For example: If we don't reduce public spending, our economy will collapse. False Cause (post hoc) ( 假因谬误 ): a fallacy in which one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier. For example: Let's not take Bill on our picnic. Every time we take him out with us, it rains. Ad Hominem ( 人身攻击 ): a fallacy that involves a personal attack. For example: Don't listen to Eddie's arguments on education. He's an idiot. Appeal to Authority ( 诉诸权威 ): a fallacy in which a person seeks to persuade an audience not by giving evidence but by appealing to the respect that people have for the famous. For example: These pills must be safe and effective for reducing pain. They have been endorsed ( 代言 ) by Miss Wu, star of stage, screen, and television. The following are the four fallacies mentioned in Text A, which are also common logical fallacies. Dicto Simpliciter ( 绝对判断 ): also called Sweeping Generalization. It's a logical fallacy in which a general rule is treated as universally true regardless of the circumstances. For example: Women are shorter and younger than their husbands. If Alan wants to get married, he should date shorter and younger women. Hasty Generalization ( 草率结论 ): a logical fallacy of faulty ( 有错误的 ) generalization by reaching an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence ― essentially making a hasty conclusion without considering all of the variables ( 变量 ) . For example: Ford is an American-made car. I owned a Ford, and it broke down all the time. American-made cars are not very good. Ad Misericordiam ( 文不对题 ): a fallacy in which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting his opponent's feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind of appeal to emotion. For example: You must have graded my exam incorrectly. I studied English very hard, and my career depends a lot on it. If you give me a failing grade, my future will be crushed. False Analogy ( 错误类比 ): an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. For example: Mind and rivers can be both broad. It is a known fact that the broader the river, the shallower it is. Therefore it must be true that the broader the mind, the shallower it is. Short answer questions: 1. What are the purposes of fallacies, according to the passage? 2. Please give three examples in Chinese and identify the logical fallacy of each. (100.0分)
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以下程序的运行结果是() #include main() { int x=8; for( ;x>0;x--) { if(x%3) {printf("%d",x--); continue; } printf("%d,",--x); } }
A. 7，4，2， B. 8，7，5，2， C. 9，7，6，4， D. 8，5，4，2，
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