The mid-sixties saw the start of a project that, along with other similar research, was to teach us a great deal about the chimpanzee mind. This was Project Washoe, conceived by Trixie and Allen Gardner. They purchased an infant chimpanzee and began to teach her the signs of ASL, the American Sign Language used by the deaf. Twenty years earlier another husband and wife team, Richard and Cathy Hayes, had tried, with an almost total lack of success, to teach a young chimp, Vikki, to talk. The Hayes*s undertaking taught us a lot about the chimpanzee mind, but Vikki, although she did well in IQ tests, and was clearly an intelligent youngster, could not learn human speech. The Gardners, however, achieved spectacular success with their pupil, Washoe. Not only did she learn signs easily, but she quickly began to string them together in meaningful ways. It was clear that each sign evoked, in her mind, a mental image of the object it represented. If, for example, she was asked, in sign language, to fetch an apple, she would go and locate an apple that was out of sight in another room. Other chimps entered the project, some starting their lives in deaf signing families before joining Washoe. And finally Washoe adopted an infant, Loulis. He came from a lab where no thought of teaching signs had ever penetrated. When he was with Washoe he was given no lessons in language acquisition—not by humans, anyway. Yet by the time he was eight years old he had made fifty-eight signs in their correct contexts. How did he learn them Mostly, it seems, by imitating the behavior of Washoe and the other three signing chimps, Dar, Moja and Tam. Sometimes, though, he received tuition from Washoe herself. One day, for example, she began to swagger about bipedally, hair bristling, signing food! food! food! in great excitement. She had seen a human approaching with a bar of chocolate. Loulis, only eighteen months old, watched passively. Suddenly Washoe stopped her swaggering, went over to him, took his hand, and moulded the sign for food (fingers pointing towards mouth). Another time, in a similar context,, she made the sign for chewing gum—but with her hand on his body. On a third occasion Washoe picked up a small chair, took it over to Loulis, set it down in front of him, and very distinctly made the chair sign three times, watching him closely as she did so. The two food signs became incorporated into Loulis’s vocabulary but the sign for chair did not. Obviously the priorities of a young chimp are similar to those of a human child! Chimpanzees who have been taught a language can combine signs creatively in order to describe objects for which they have no symbol. Washoe, for example, puzzled her caretakers by asking, repeatedly, for a rock berry. Eventually it transpired that she was referring to brazil nuts which she had encountered for the first time a while before. Another language-trained chimp described a cucumber as a green banana. They can even invent signs. Lucy, as she got older, had to be put on a leash for her outings. One day, eager to set off but having no sign for leash, she signaled her wishes by holding a crooked index finger to the ring on her collar. This sign became part of her vocabulary.
The mid-sixties saw the start of a project that, along with other similar research, was to teach us a great deal about the chimpanzee mind. This was Project Washoe, conceived by Trixie and Allen Gardner. They purchased an infant chimpanzee and began to teach her the signs of ASL, the American Sign Language used by the deaf. Twenty years earlier another husband and wife team, Richard and Cathy Hayes, had tried, with an almost total lack of success, to teach a young chimp, Vikki, to talk. The Hayes*s undertaking taught us a lot about the chimpanzee mind, but Vikki, although she did well in IQ tests, and was clearly an intelligent youngster, could not learn human speech. The Gardners, however, achieved spectacular success with their pupil, Washoe. Not only did she learn signs easily, but she quickly began to string them together in meaningful ways. It was clear that each sign evoked, in her mind, a mental image of the object it represented. If, for example, she was asked, in sign language, to fetch an apple, she would go and locate an apple that was out of sight in another room.
Other chimps entered the project, some starting their lives in deaf signing families before joining Washoe. And finally Washoe adopted an infant, Loulis. He came from a lab where no thought of teaching signs had ever penetrated. When he was with Washoe he was given no lessons in language acquisition—not by humans, anyway. Yet by the time he was eight years old he had made fifty-eight signs in their correct contexts. How did he learn them Mostly, it seems, by imitating the behavior of Washoe and the other three signing chimps, Dar, Moja and Tam. Sometimes, though, he received tuition from Washoe herself. One day, for example, she began to swagger about bipedally, hair bristling, signing food! food! food! in great excitement. She had seen a human approaching with a bar of chocolate. Loulis, only eighteen months old, watched passively. Suddenly Washoe stopped her swaggering, went over to him, took his hand, and moulded the sign for food (fingers pointing towards mouth). Another time, in a similar context,, she made the sign for chewing gum—but with her hand on his body. On a third occasion Washoe picked up a small chair, took it over to Loulis, set it down in front of him, and very distinctly made the chair sign three times, watching him closely as she did so. The two food signs became incorporated into Loulis’s vocabulary but the sign for chair did not. Obviously the priorities of a young chimp are similar to those of a human child!
Chimpanzees who have been taught a language can combine signs creatively in order to describe objects for which they have no symbol. Washoe, for example, puzzled her caretakers by asking, repeatedly, for a rock berry. Eventually it transpired that she was referring to brazil nuts which she had encountered for the first time a while before. Another language-trained chimp described a cucumber as a green banana. They can even invent signs. Lucy, as she got older, had to be put on a leash for her outings. One day, eager to set off but having no sign for leash, she signaled her wishes by holding a crooked index finger to the ring on her collar. This sign became part of her vocabulary.
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Can New Doctors Be Harmflul to Your Health Between the nerves, the unfamiliarity and the urge to impress, few people do themselves justice on the first day of a new job. When it comes to doctors starting out in emergency medicine, though, are patients’ lives being put at risk According to research from Imperial College London, the death rate among patients admitted to English hospitals on the first Wednesday in August -the day, traditionally, that newly graduated doctors take up their posts--was, on average, 6% higher than for those admitted the last Wednesday in July. An influx of new medical staff, in other words, just might be very, very bad for your health. In the university’ s study (the biggest of its kind so far), published Sept. 23 in PLoS One, the online scientific journal of the U. S. Public Library of Science, scientists analyzed close to 300,000 patients admitted to state - run hospitals across England on those two Wednesdays from 2000 to 2008. The health of the patients, who were split evenly between the July and August admission days, was tracked for a week. While there was little difference between the crude death rates for each seven -day period, when researchers controlled for the patients’ age, sex, socioeconomic status and secondary medical problems, the odds of dying was found to be 6% higher for those admired on the Wednesday in August. Among so - called medical achnissions - all those not suffering from cancer or requiring surgery -the odds were 8% higher. Should patients be nervous Scientists have for years been examining the patient risk associated with a change over of medical staff Smaller studies conducted over the past two decades in Britain and the U. S. -where researchers label it the "July phenomenon," after the month in which medical students usually begin training--have often proved inconelusive. Even the "small but significant" discrepancy highlighted by Imperial’ s study doesn’t point to a particular cause. It’ s possible that patients admitted on the days junior doctors began work were simply in worse health than those taken in the week earlier. Some hospitals may have been more reluctant to admit patients with less - serious problems on the days new staff started work, limiting the number of cases young medics had to deal with but increasing the concentration of acutely ill patients in the process. "So it may not necessarily be directly related to the quality of care, "says Paul Aylin, an epidemiologist at Imperial College London and senior author of the study.
Between the nerves, the unfamiliarity and the urge to impress, few people do themselves justice on the first day of a new job. When it comes to doctors starting out in emergency medicine, though, are patients’ lives being put at risk According to research from Imperial College London, the death rate among patients admitted to English hospitals on the first Wednesday in August -the day, traditionally, that newly graduated doctors take up their posts--was, on average, 6% higher than for those admitted the last Wednesday in July. An influx of new medical staff, in other words, just might be very, very bad for your health.
In the university’ s study (the biggest of its kind so far), published Sept. 23 in PLoS One, the online scientific journal of the U. S. Public Library of Science, scientists analyzed close to 300,000 patients admitted to state - run hospitals across England on those two Wednesdays from 2000 to 2008. The health of the patients, who were split evenly between the July and August admission days, was tracked for a week. While there was little difference between the crude death rates for each seven -day period, when researchers controlled for the patients’ age, sex, socioeconomic status and secondary medical problems, the odds of dying was found to be 6% higher for those admired on the Wednesday in August. Among so - called medical achnissions - all those not suffering from cancer or requiring surgery -the odds were 8% higher. Should patients be nervous Scientists have for years been examining the patient risk associated with a change over of medical staff Smaller studies conducted over the past two decades in Britain and the U. S. -where researchers label it the "July phenomenon," after the month in which medical students usually begin training--have often proved inconelusive.
Even the "small but significant" discrepancy highlighted by Imperial’ s study doesn’t point to a particular cause. It’ s possible that patients admitted on the days junior doctors began work were simply in worse health than those taken in the week earlier. Some hospitals may have been more reluctant to admit patients with less - serious problems on the days new staff started work, limiting the number of cases young medics had to deal with but increasing the concentration of acutely ill patients in the process. "So it may not necessarily be directly related to the quality of care, "says Paul Aylin, an epidemiologist at Imperial College London and senior author of the study.
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